Eight major central banks moved beyond research into live or large-scale pilots of central bank digital currency in the first quarter of 2026, accelerating a regulatory and technology shift that has been brewing since 2020. The People’s Bank of China, the European Central Bank, the Bank of Japan, the Bank of England, the Reserve Bank of India, the Monetary Authority of Singapore, the Bank of Thailand, and Brazil’s Banco Central all have CBDC programmes either in retail pilot or wholesale production stages, with the BIS reporting that 134 jurisdictions, representing 98 percent of global GDP, are now actively researching CBDC issuance.
The strongest pilot remains China’s e-CNY, with the People’s Bank of China reporting cumulative transaction value of 7.3 trillion yuan, roughly 1 trillion US dollars, by December 2025 across 26 pilot cities. Daily active users crossed 12 million in major centres including Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen, while merchant acceptance reached 8.6 million terminals. The PBOC has used the e-CNY to test programmable money features, including conditional welfare disbursements and corporate B2B payments with built-in tax automation, both of which appear designed for nationwide rollout in late 2026.
Europe’s digital euro project, led by the ECB and the Eurosystem, is in its preparation phase ahead of a final issuance decision in 2027. The ECB confirmed in March 2026 that selected technology providers, including IBM and Wirecard’s successor Nexi Group, are building the core ledger components, with Caixabank, BNP Paribas, and Deutsche Bank participating in the first wave of intermediary integration. The retail design caps individual holdings at 3,000 euros to prevent disintermediation of commercial banks, a key concession demanded by the European Banking Federation.
Asia’s smaller pilots have advanced further on cross-border functionality. Project mBridge, jointly developed by the BIS Innovation Hub Hong Kong, the HKMA, the PBOC, the Bank of Thailand, and the Central Bank of the UAE, processed over 22 million US dollars in tokenised real-value payments during its 2024 minimum viable product phase. The Bank of Thailand and MAS extended Project mBridge integration to corporate treasurers in March 2026, allowing select multinational corporations to settle invoices in tokenised baht and Singapore dollar between commercial bank counterparties without correspondent banking. JPMorgan Onyx, DBS Tokenised, and HSBC’s Orion are currently the participating commercial banks in Phase 2.
Wholesale CBDCs are seeing faster commercial adoption than retail variants. Singapore’s MAS announced in February 2026 that 12 commercial banks have access to tokenised SGD on the Project Guardian network for institutional bond settlement and FX transactions. Average daily volume crossed 4.1 billion Singapore dollars in Q1 2026, with Standard Chartered, OCBC, and JPMorgan as the largest active participants. The Bank of Japan’s wholesale CBDC pilot, in collaboration with Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group and Mizuho, focuses on instant tokenised yen settlement for the secondary market in Japanese government bonds.
For commercial banks, the operational implications are immediate. Settlement systems built around the SWIFT network and central counterparty clearing infrastructure must now interoperate with tokenised central bank balances. Banks that fail to integrate risk losing institutional flow to competitors who offer 24/7 settlement on tokenised wholesale rails. Treasury management platforms from FIS, Finastra, and Temenos have all released CBDC-ready modules in the past 12 months, suggesting that integration costs are trending down rapidly.
Retail CBDC adoption faces stiffer headwinds. Surveys from the European Central Bank in late 2025 showed only 31 percent of European retail users were interested in holding digital euros once issued, compared to 78 percent of Chinese citizens already familiar with e-CNY through pilot exposure. Privacy remains the central tension. The ECB has committed to making low-value digital euro transactions anonymous up to a threshold yet to be specified, while the PBOC has implemented a controllable anonymity model that allows law enforcement access to all transaction records.
Implications for the broader fintech market are double-edged. Stablecoin issuers like Circle’s USDC and Tether’s USDT face direct competition from regulated CBDCs in cross-border B2B and remittance use cases. Yet stablecoins still hold structural advantages in non-G20 jurisdictions where local CBDCs may take years to issue. Crypto exchanges and wallet providers that integrate CBDCs into their on-off ramp flows will benefit from regulatory legitimacy and lower funding costs. Those that resist or ignore CBDC integration risk becoming structurally less competitive against regulated competitors.
The next 18 months will likely separate the winners from the laggards in this space. Central banks with functioning live retail CBDCs will experience compounding network effects as merchants and consumers adopt the rails. Wholesale tokenisation will continue at faster pace because the institutional case is clearer. Retail issuance decisions in the eurozone, the UK, and India will shape global standards, particularly for offline transaction support, privacy thresholds, and the legal status of programmable money features. By the end of 2027, expect at least 12 major central banks to have moved past pilot stage and into live retail issuance.
